Lecture 13: Relative Clauses

13.1 Basic Concepts of Relative Clauses

13.1.1 Modifiers

Relative Clauses and Complex Sentences

A relative clause is a subordinate clause within a complex sentence;

What is a modifier?

A modifier adds information about a noun;
1. A word or phrase is often enough when little information is needed;
2. When more information is needed, a relative clause can be placed after the noun to identify or describe it;

13.1.1 Relative Clause

Basic Concepts of Relative Clauses

Core: A relative clause follows and modifies an antecedent noun;
Structure:
In English, which introduces a clause that modifies the preceding noun discipline;
Example: Law is a discipline that encourages responsible judgment.;

Antecedents and Relative Pronouns/Adverbs

Give an example
Law is a discipline which encourages responsible judgment.
Before splitting:
1. Law is a discipline.
2. A discipline encourages responsible judgment.
a discipline: the antecedent being modified;
which: a relative pronoun that refers to a discipline and functions as the subject of the relative clause;
Functions of relative words
1. Introduce the relative clause;
2. Perform a grammatical role in the relative clause while referring back to the antecedent;

13.2 Use of Relative Clauses

13.2.1 Writing Relative Clauses

Structure of Relative Clauses

Position: placed after the antecedent (n.).
Writing Method:
1. Start from two complete clauses that contain the same noun;
2. Turn the repeated noun in the second clause into an appropriate relative pronoun or adverb, then place the relative clause after its antecedent;
Illustration:

13.2.2 Antecedents and Relative Words

Choosing Antecedents and Relative Words

Antecedent: a thing
Relative word: which/that
Antecedent: a person
Relative words: who/whom/that
Note: who may be a subject or object; formal English uses whom only as an object;
Antecedent: a person’s or thing’s (indicates all relationships between people or things, "someone's/something's")
Relative word: whose
Antecedent: time
Relative word: when
Antecedent: place
Relative word: where
Note: where can refer to a literal place or to an abstract situation, field, or context;

Examples

1. The antecedent is things or objects, and the relative word is which/that;
Teachers need to be aware of the emotional, intellectual, and physical changes ___ young adults experience.
Use that or which: the clause modifies changes, which functions as the object of experience;
Furthermore, the legal system and the events which occur within it are primary subjects for journalists.
The antecedent events denotes things, so either which or that is possible in a restrictive clause;
2. The antecedent is 'person', and the relative word is chosen as who/whom/that;
In France, shareholders who/that hold onto a company investment for at least two years can sometimes earn more voting rights in a company.
In France, shareholders must have held shares in the company for at least two years to be eligible for voting rights;
shareholders refers to people and is the subject of hold, so use who or that;
3. The antecedent is people or things, indicating all relationships between people or things; the relational word is 'whose';
It also pledged not to deploy AI whose use would violate international laws or human rights.
whose use means “the use of that AI”;
whose can express possession or association for both people and things;
This, for those as yet unaware of such a disadvantage, refers to discrimination against those whose surnames begin with a letter in the lower half of the alphabet.
4. The antecedent is time, and the relative word is chosen when;
It is difficult to the point of impossibility for the average reader under the age of forty to imagine a time ___ high-quality arts criticism could be found in most big-city newspapers.
Fill in when;
5. The antecedent is 'location', and the relative word is 'where';
Today, we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are all available on our smartphones.
6. When the antecedent is reason, the relative adverb may be why;
The other reason why costs are so high is the restrictive guild-like ownership structure of the business.

13.2.3 Notes on Relative Words

Every relative pronoun has a grammatical role in its clause; that may refer to either people or things;
With things, restrictive relative clauses may use which or that. A non-restrictive clause after a comma uses which, not that;
whom refers to a person and functions only as an object; who may function as a subject or object, while that may function as either in a restrictive clause;
When a relative word is used as an object in a relative clause (after a transitive verb or after a preposition), it can be omitted;
Supplement: Special relational word whereby = by which

13.3 Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

13.3.1 Basic Concepts

Examples

Restrictive relative clause: He will call his friend who is working in London.
Non-restrictive relative clause (absolutely explicit):He will call his mother, who is working in London.
Non-restrictive relative clause (the antecedent is already identified): This trend, which we believe is still in its infancy, effectively began with retailers and travel providers such as airlines and hotels and will no doubt go further.

Category

Illustration:

13.3.2 Supplement 1: Restrictive Relative Clauses and Appositive Clauses

Differences Between Restrictive and Appositive Clauses

Appositive clause
Purpose: $\text{ Explanation }:\,n.$
Location: abstract n.
Role of that: in an appositive/content clause, that is only a subordinator and has no grammatical role inside the clause;
A restrictive relative clause
Purpose: identify or describe a noun;
Position: after the antecedent noun, whether concrete or abstract;
Role of that: that refers to the antecedent and functions as the subject or object within the relative clause;

Examples

One possible response is for classical performers to program attractive new music that is not yet available on record.
music: antecedent;
that: relative word;
'music' is not an abstract noun, so it is followed by a relative clause rather than an appositive clause;
And 'that' serves as the component, so it can also be shown that this is a relative clause;
The idea that some groups of people may be more intelligent than others is one of those hypotheses that dare not speak its name.
This sentence has two 'that' clauses, both followed by the noun -> and then the noun, so it is either an appositive clause or a relative clause;
The first that-clause explains the content of the idea, so it is an appositive/content clause;
The second 'that' serves as a component, expressing... such an assumption, so it is a relative clause;
... We unconsciously imitate the behavior (that) we see every day.
The word 'that' here is omitted;
Conclusion: A noun + that-clause sequence may be either a relative clause or an appositive/content clause; decide by checking whether that has a grammatical role inside the clause;

13.3.3 Supplement 2: Relative Clauses Referring to an Entire Clause

Special non-restrictive relative clauses that comment on the whole preceding clause

Usage:
1. When adding to the whole sentence, only $\text{ Comma }+which$ or $\text{ Comma }+as$ can be used
2. which normally follows the clause it refers to; as may appear before or after the main clause in patterns such as as is known;

Examples

Most fisheries are well below that, which is a bad way to do business.
which modifies the entire previous matter, thus modifies the whole sentence;
A few generative rules are then sufficient to unfold the entire fundamental structure of a language, which is why children can learn it so quickly.
which modifies the entire previous matter;
Here, which is why is a fixed relationship and cannot simply be replaced with as;
Nevertheless, as any biographer knows, a person's early life and its conditions are often the greatest gift to an individual.
As indicates the whole thing;

13.3.4 Supplement 3: Preposition Fronting in Relative Clauses

Formal pattern: $\text{preposition}+\text{whom/which}$

A preposition may be stranded at the end of the relative clause or fronted before the relative pronoun;
After a fronted preposition, use which for things and whom for people—not that or who;

Examples

Grade forgiveness allows students to retake a course which they received a low grade in...
With preposition stranding, in remains at the end of the clause;
With preposition fronting: Grade forgiveness allows students to retake a course in which they received a low grade...
... Commercial genetic testing is only as good as the reference collections which a sample is compared to.
as ... as expresses a comparison of equality;
Front to: Commercial genetic testing is only as good as the reference collections to which a sample is compared.
Television is one of the means by which these feelings are created and conveyed...
by which: through

13.3.5 Key Points

Overview: a relative clause follows and modifies an antecedent noun;
Structure: relative pronoun/adverb + clause; choose the relative word according to the antecedent and its role inside the clause;
Classification of relative clauses: restrictive relative clauses and non-restrictive relative clauses;
Supplementation of relative clauses

(1) The difference between restrictive relative clauses and appositive/content clauses

(2) Special non-restrictive relative clauses (supplementary explanation of the entire sentence)

(3) Relative clauses with a fronted preposition